Why People Commit Crime: What Sociology & Criminology Reveal

Understanding Crime Beyond the Law

CRIME is commonly defined as any act or omission that violates the laws of a society and is punishable by the state. But while the legal definition explains what crime is, it does not explain why it happens.

For more than a century, scholars in sociology and criminology have developed competing and complementary theories to explain criminal behaviour. Some focus on social structures such as inequality, poverty, and institutional breakdown. Others examine individual psychology, biology, and rational decision-making.

Together, these frameworks form the foundation of modern crime prevention policy, policing strategy, and justice reform.

Crime as a Product of Society

Sociological theories view crime primarily as a social phenomenon — shaped by economic systems, community structures, and social relationships rather than simply individual choices.

Crime as a “Normal” Social Fact

French sociologist Émile Durkheim argued that crime is a normal and inevitable part of any society. According to his functionalist perspective, crime helps define moral boundaries by clarifying what a society considers unacceptable. In some cases, criminal acts can even promote social change.

Durkheim warned, however, that both excessive crime and extreme repression could destabilize society. In this view, crime performs certain social functions but must remain within manageable limits.

Strain and Blocked Opportunities

Durkheim’s ideas were later expanded by American sociologist Robert K. Merton through Strain Theory. Merton argued that crime emerges when there is a disconnect between socially approved goals — such as wealth and success — and legitimate means of achieving them.

When individuals lack access to education, employment, or upward mobility, some may turn to illegal methods to achieve culturally valued goals. Theft, fraud, and drug trafficking can be seen as adaptations to blocked opportunities.

Inequality and Class Conflict

From a conflict perspective rooted in the work of Karl Marx, crime reflects structural inequality. Marxist theorists argue that laws are often shaped by ruling economic classes to protect property and maintain power.

Under this view, the criminal justice system disproportionately targets the poor while corporate or elite wrongdoing may be treated more leniently. Crime, therefore, is not only a personal act but also a manifestation of class struggle.

Communities and Social Breakdown

Social Disorganization Theory shifts attention to neighbourhood conditions. High crime rates, researchers argue, are often found in areas characterized by poverty, unstable housing, weak schools, and family disruption.

Where community institutions fail to exercise informal social control, criminal activity may flourish.

Learning to Commit Crime

Other sociological perspectives emphasize interaction. Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through close relationships. Individuals adopt criminal techniques and values from peers, particularly in environments such as gangs.

Similarly, Howard Becker’s Labeling Theory proposes that individuals become “criminals” partly because society labels them as such. Once stigmatized, they may internalize the label and continue offending — a process known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Crime as Individual Behaviour

Criminological theories tend to focus more directly on individual responsibility, biology, and psychological traits, while still acknowledging social influences.

Rational Choice and Deterrence

The Classical School, associated with Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, views crime as a rational decision. Individuals weigh potential pleasure against possible punishment.

From this perspective, crime can be reduced by ensuring that penalties are certain, swift, and proportionate.

Biology and Psychology

In contrast, Positivist Theory argues that criminal behaviour may result from biological or psychological factors beyond an individual’s control. Early theorist Cesare Lombroso controversially suggested that criminal tendencies could be inherited.

Modern biological theories examine genetics, brain function, and hormonal influences, while psychological approaches explore personality disorders, trauma, and childhood development.

Opportunity and Weak Bonds

Routine Activity Theory proposes that crime occurs when three elements converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and absence of a capable guardian. Crime, therefore, depends heavily on opportunity.

Meanwhile, Travis Hirschi’s Control Theory suggests that individuals offend when their bonds to family, school, and community weaken. Strong social attachments reduce criminal behaviour.

A Combined Framework

While sociological theories emphasize inequality and social environment, criminological theories focus on decision-making and individual traits. Policymakers increasingly recognize that crime cannot be explained through a single lens.

Effective prevention strategies often combine approaches: strengthening communities, expanding economic opportunity, improving mental health services, and maintaining fair legal deterrence.

Ultimately, crime is neither purely a matter of bad choices nor solely a product of structural injustice. It emerges from the complex interaction between individuals and the societies they inhabit.